Ecological Management

          TOPIC:  ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

          Associations Specific Objectives:  By the destination of these lessons,      the pupil should live able to:

        a.     define association every bit a biological term

        b.     State the types of biological associations

        c.      Describe in addition to give examples of each type of association.

                  WHAT ARE Biological Associations?

        By way of illustration the instructor introduces the students to sure enough associations inward everyday life.  He explains that whatsoever form of human relationship betwixt 2 or to a greater extent than persons which may live beneficial or harmful to either or both parties is an association.  By way of definition, the instructor defines Biological association every bit a beneficial harmless or harmful human relationship resulting from interaction betwixt or alongside organisms.

        Since organisms inward the ecosystem are constantly interacting with        other organisms in addition to with the physical environment, they ask to adjust themselves in addition to so every bit to create out with problems of survival inward their environment, the instructor explains that that is the land of written report of ecological management.  It deals with activities aimed at balancing changes inward an ecosystem to convey almost optimum survival of organisms.  In guild to accomplish this, organisms larn into diverse biological associations.

        Types:  There are many types of such associations. These include:

-      Symbiosis

-      Predator – Prey relationship

-       Saprophytism

        Symbiosis is a unopen association betwixt 2 or to a greater extent than unrelated         organisms which may live beneficial, harmful or neutral.

        iii types of symbiotic associations include:

-      Mutualism

-      Parasitism and,

-      Commensalism

        Mutualism is a symbiotic association betwixt 2 organisms inward   which both of them make goodness from each other.  Each fellow member of the         association is a symbiont.

        Examples:

        A.      LICHEN:  Symbionts ===>  Algae & Fungus

        

        Cross Section of a Lichen

          Lichen is a symbiotic association betwixt a fungus in addition to a dark-green algae which lives inward unopen association.  The algae is enclosed yesteryear the        fungus in addition to protects it from physical harm in addition to from dessication.       It also absorbs roughly H2O from the environs used yesteryear the       algae.  The algae inward plow manufactures nutrient yesteryear photosynthesis to       feed the fungus.

        B.      PROTOZOA IN THE INTESTINE OF TERMITES

                Termites swallow wood but lack cellulose to digest cellulose inward the             wood.  However, they select inward their gut protozoa of the type                trichonympha which secretes an enzyme that digest the                        cellulose.  The protozoa make goodness inward the next ways:

        i.      They are provided shelter yesteryear the termite

        ii.      They larn protection from the termite

        iii.     The termite provides them with cellulose from which they                 digest to larn sugar.  The termite gains carbohydrate from the                   cellulose they feed on.

        C.      NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA IN THE ROOTS OF                            LEGUMINOUS PLANTS

                Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bacterium called Rhizobium leguminosarium lives inward the                 beginning nodules of leguminous plants, obtain nutrients from the             cells of the host plants, grow in addition to multiply or reproduce there.            In turn, the Rhizobium gives nitrogen take into the plants         from the atmosphere thereby increasing the nitrogen                       availability of legumes.

        D.      BACTERIA IN THE GUT OF HERBIVORES

                   Certain cellulose bacteria inhabit the rumen of herbivores similar            cattle, caprine animal in addition to sheep etc.  They are able to digest cellulose               using their self produced cellulose.  They so provide a               broad hit of sugars for the plants piece they inward plow larn                   shelter,      protection, nutrient in addition to minerals from the plants.

          E.      FLOWERS AND INSECTS

                   Insects obtain nutrient from plants inward the shape of pollen in addition to                   nectar piece inward plow they pollinate the plants enabling them         to undergo sexual reproduction.

        F.      MYCORRHIZA

                   There are 2 types:  Endo/cotomycorrhiza.

                This is an association betwixt a fungus in addition to the roots of                    higher plants.  The fungi deed every bit beginning hairs in addition to assist inward                           transferring inorganic nutrients from the set down into the plants.             The plants provide the fungus with organic nutrients.

        G.      CATTLE AND EGNETS (TICK BIRDS)

                   Cattles are groomed yesteryear tick birds which take blood sucking           glues in addition to ticks from their bodies.  In this association, the                 birds larn nutrient yesteryear eating the ticks piece the cattle make goodness yesteryear                having their parasites infestation reduced.  This enables the         cattle to thrive in addition to live to a greater extent than productive.

     

        Commensalism:  This is a symbiotic association of 2 dissimilar       organisms inward which 1 (the commensal) derives roughly benefits   piece the other (host) neither gains nor suffers harm.  The         advantages involve shelter, support, nutrient or combination of factors.      Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 typical trial is betwixt the shark in addition to the piffling manne fish        called Remora.  The remora’s dorsal fin is modified into a concur fast-     similar structure.  By agency of this the remora attaches itself    temporarily to the underside of a shark.

        The remora eats the scraps of nutrient falling off when the shark feeds.  The remora gets protection from predators in addition to a broad distribution,      the shark, however, is non affected yesteryear this association.

        Many gut bacteria are commensals particularly inward the large intestine.    They feed on the unwanted waste matter in addition to larn protection piece at       normal flora nosotros are unaffected.

        Epiphytes in addition to Trees:  Epiphytes are sunloving plants that climb       in addition to grow on trees to live adequately exposed to the sunlight.  The         trees provide a base of operations for attachment in addition to seat fo them piece the      tree is either harmed or benefited.  Example is Platycerum in addition to tall      trees.

        Hermit Crab in addition to Hydrachatine:  Hermit crabs line solid in addition to convey    a type of hydra called hydrachatine inward its shell.

        The hydrachtine feeds on the nutrient particles obtained from the crab    which gains cipher from the association

        CD 3:  Period 3:  PARATISM

          This is an association involving a parasite in addition to a host.  The parasite     lives in addition to derives nutrients in addition to protection from the host piece the    host suffers serious harm from the parasite.  Parasites include      viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi in addition to invertebrates similar circular        worms in addition to platyhelminths in addition to roughly arthrodopa, roughly flowring         plants similar stinga (witch weeed, in addition to dodder (euscuta).

        Parasites may be

         – Endoparasites or

-      Ectoparasite

        Endoparasites alive within the torso tissues of their host in addition to sap   them of the nutrients resources in addition to may drive decease to their host.     Examples melinde – Tapeworm, Hook worm, trypanosome,    plasmodium, liverfluke etc. 

        Ectoparasites are those parasites that alive exterior the torso of their     host.  They attach to the surfaces of the host’s torso with special        structures for attachment eg, lice, ticks, fleas.

        Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 parasite passes most of its life in/on the torso of its host.

        Benefits to parasites – nutrient – shelters – protection

        Effect Of Parasitic Action ON The Host

        Parasites make non e'er kill their host except sure enough parasites called   Parasitids.  Parasites harm the host’s tissues – they create toxins within their host.  These toxins may drive illness or pitiable   health.  Many ectoparasites deed every bit vectors e.g tick spread babesia and rat fleas spread the plague causing bacteria.

        Effects include stunted growth, tiredness, lack of resistance to   disease, depression productivity.

        Diseases caused yesteryear parasites include:

-      Black pod illness of cocoa caused yesteryear fungus phythopthora parmivora

-      Blast, rust in addition to smut of cereals yesteryear fungi

-      Gonorrhea, Tuberculosis in addition to leprosy yesteryear bacteria

-      Babesiosis yesteryear protozoa

        ADAPTATIONS OF PARASITES

-      Possession of organs for piercing the host torso surface in addition to sucking

-      Presence of specialized tedious organs

-      Presence of attachment structures eg, ectoparasites

-      Ability to secrete enzyme capable of dissolving tissues

-      Presence of skillful reproductive means

        Some Important parasitic plants include:

        Dodder (cuscuta) + Mestletoe (tiponanthus lorantnus)

        Special Features:   Attachment structures eg, claw claws in addition to suckers

-      Flat torso shape for non-easy brush off from the host

-      Piercing in addition to sucking oral fissure parts for feeding

-      Ability to create anticoagulant to forbid blood dottings.

        ENDOPARASITES

          Special Features

-      Poor digestive arrangement ==> Organs of displace in addition to feel organ

-      Hermaphrodites

-      Lays large number of eggs produced to increase chances of infesting novel hosts

-      Complicated life bike involving 2 hosts

-      Production of anti-enzymes to neutralize host’s enzyme

-      Ability to respire inward depression oxygen supply

-      Presence of attachment structures in addition to suckers

        Important endoparasites include (Humans)

        Tapeworm

         -    Hookworm  

        -    Pin worms

        –   Ascaries

-      Threadworms

-      Filaria worms etc.

TAPE WORM

          These are long parasitic worms which alive inward the gut of humans.  Several species be but paramount are the

-      Cattle tapeworm -à Taenia Saginatta

-      Pig tapeworm  --à  Taenia Solium

        Adaptive Structures

          Include in addition to specific from the full general features mentioned higher upward are

-      Flat record – similar bodies for slow diffusion in addition to movement

-      Small spherical caput bearing (scolax)

-      Suckers for absorption of nutrient from host

-      Large number of egg bearing proglottides

-      Hooks for attachment to the intestinal wall of host.

Internally the worm is simplified every bit a trial of adaption to its parasitic way of life.  No oral fissure or good developed alimentary canal.  It so absorbs nutrient digested yesteryear its host over its torso surface.  No organs of circulation nor respiration.  Its excretory organ is the flame cell.  Tapeworms are hermaphrodites

        Life Cycle:  Two hosts are involved inward the life bike viz: 

        a.     Human host every bit primary host in addition to roughly other animate beingness (cow of pig)     every bit secondary host.  The proglottids at the posterior destination mature in addition to breaks off beingness filled with eggs are passed out inward   human faeces.This develops into the embryo with vi hooks covered with a protective shell.

        If the eggs are eaten yesteryear a foraging grunter or grazing cattle, the embryo is swallowed in addition to is released from a protective crunch yesteryear the activeness of digestive enzyme produced yesteryear the secondary host.  The embryos burrow into the bloodstream through the walls of the intestine.  They are carried yesteryear the blood in addition to loosed inward the insiders where they rest in addition to develop.  They instantly grow into a cyst in addition to latter into a bladder.  Part of the bladder forms a proscolax resembling the caput of a record worm turned within out.  This is called a bladderworm.  If undercooked pork or beef is injected yesteryear humans the bladerworm is introduced into the intestine of the human where it develop into a novel tapeworm.

Life Cycle of Tapeworm

Bladderworm inward Man

                                                          Mature Proglottids inward faeces of man

                                                Eggs swallowed yesteryear pig/cow

Bladderworm eaten yesteryear man

in poorly cooked pork/beef

                                                Embyo cyst gets into the blood current                                   of 2 hosts

Burrows into the within where they develop into bladderworm

Hook

Sucker

Proglottids

Mature proglottids

                       Tapeworm x 3

Economic Importance

-      Tapeworm make non drive whatsoever severe symptoms since their presence inward the torso is unnoticed if non inward stool, but since they rely on digested nutrient they tin flaming drive anaemia.

-      They lower the body’s resistance to disease

-      They drive irritation of the intestinal wall which drive abdominal pain

-      It causes ulcer of the intestinal wall

-      They drive loss of appetite, vomiting in addition to loss of weight or emaciation, nervous disorder in addition to indigestion.

           

            Control Of Tapeworm

-      Proper sanitation ensures that eggs make non contaminate nutrient – Pork/beef should live examined yesteryear veterinarian doctors earlier killing

-      Well cooked meat

-      Proper handling of infestation should live observed.

            Evaluation:  To live drawn from page 178 – 180 of                                                       Comprehensive Biology

             

          Home work:

          1.     Describe the life bike of whatsoever 2 ectoparasite and

        2.     State the economical importance of musquito inward the world

        Reading Assignment:  Read on Tolerance & Ectoparasites

TOPIC:  TOLERANCE

Specific Objectives: 

The students should at the destination of these lessons live able to:

1.     Define tolerance

2.     State the importance of tolerance to conservation of the ecosystem

3.     State the Shelford’s Law of Tolerance in addition to apply it to survival of organisms.

4.     Draw a profile to exhibit the diverse tolerance zones in addition to concepts inward a habitat.

        

          WHAT IS TOLERANCE

        The  instructor guides the students to understood that tolerance is the might of an organism to withstand piffling unfavourable changes inward the environs which affects their survival.  Living organisms tin flaming solely live inward a detail environs if they tin flaming tolerate the ranges of abiotic factors that operate there.  Due to changes inward environmental conditions, roughly of these factors are unfvourable.  Too piffling or likewise much of such factors such every bit light, heat, cold, acidity, etc may acquit on the survival of organisms.  In 1840, a High German scientist named Justus Liebig highlighted the importance of unmarried factors inward his “LAW OF THE MINIMUM”.  The constabulary nation that “the growth of a pant volition live express yesteryear whichever requisite constituent is most efficient inward a local environment”.

        V.E. Shelford inward 1913 expanded this constabulary to encompass animals.  He recognized the fact that likewise much of anything may live every bit bad every bit likewise little.  Hence his constabulary is called The Shelford’s Law of Tolerance.  It states that the distribution of specie volition live express yesteryear the environmental factors for which the organism has the narrowest hit of adaptability.  Since organisms tin flaming solely alive within sure enough minimum in addition to maximum limits for each abiotic factor.  The hit betwixt the maximum in addition to minimum bound is known every bit tolerance hit for that factor.  Example, most animals select a minimum hit 0^oc in addition to maximum bound of 42^oc.  The tolerance hit is so 0^oc – 42^oc. 

        Hence tolerance hit is defined every bit the hit betwixt the minimum in addition to maximum limits to which organisms tin flaming tolerate sure enough changes inward their environs in addition to so every bit to survive. 

        Beyond the tolerance range, decease occurs.  0^oc hither is the lower limit/lethal temperature piece 42^oc is the upper lethal temperature.

        Within the tolerance hit is the optimum hit where at that topographic point is maximum survival charge per unit of measurement of organisms.  Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 zone of physiological stress where growth in addition to reproduction falls (organisms contend to survive)  in addition to an intolerance where organism are absent.

        Low           Profile of Tolerance range             High

        One constituent may acquit on the tolerance ranges of other factors e.g. when the O₂ degree of H2O is low, lobsters tin flaming tolerate temperature upward to 29^oc, but at higher oxygen degree they tin flaming tolerate temperature upward to 32^oc.

        CD 2:  22/6/10

          GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE

          A infinite tin flaming solely live flora inward areas that are within their maximum in addition to minimum hit of abiotic constituent or tolerance such areas are called Geographical hit of that organism.

        Abiotic factors are responsible for the geographical of whatsoever organism.  The geographical hit of the pelting frost is within the equator every bit a trial of high rainfall in addition to temperature whereas the northern in addition to southern poles select no tropical rainforest due to absence of rainfall.

        The biomes of the basis are due to the tolerance ranges of diverse types of flora species.  Hence the v   analion inward abiotic factors are responsible for the geographical hit of a specie.

       

        CD 3:  SUMMARY/TEST

          The instructor summarizes yesteryear maxim that the management of our ecosystem is essential for the maintenance of ease in addition to hence heighten the survival of organisms within their geographical ranges of survival.

        Certain concepts like:

-      Tolerance

-      Tolerance Range

-      Geographical Range

-      Optimum Range

-      Biological Associations

-      Symbiosis

-      Commensalism

-      Parasitism

-      Eutrophication, etc.